Bits of Information from Greg Cajete's Thesis

Cajete, G.A. (1986). "Science: a Native American perspective": A culturally based science education curriculum. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, International College, Los Angeles.

Bicultural science education

"The socio-cultural dimensions and underlying value structures inherent in Western science have been poorly presented [in conventional science classes]" (p. 10)

Principal goal: "A basic understanding of what constitutes reality for different cultural groups and how to best establish communication about nature which is meaningful to a particular group" (p. 187)

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Much research has explored the "cultural mismatch between home and school" (p. 195). "In some cases, the disparity between home and school environments is so great that some native American students experience a kind of culture shock which significantly affects their attitudes toward school" (p. 201).

"The teaching of science from only one cultural perspective and in the partialistic manner that dominates science education continues to be the central dilemma of science education today" (p. 221).

"Individual lesson and unit development in the area of bicultural science for Native American students must be a priority. ... If any curriculum which uses the bicultural approach is to maintain a consistent balance between the expression of two cultural systems of expression, then ideally content for both systems must reflect a basic parity of development." (p. 300)

Science

"There is no word in any traditional native American language which can be translated to mean 'science' as it is viewed in modern Western society" (p. 129).

"From the native American perspective, science, traditionally speaking, is an abstract, symbolic and metaphoric way of perceiving and understanding the world" (p. 207). [Glen -- compare to Ogawa.]

"A system of classification and the conceptual reason for that system as well as behavior in reference to this system forms the essence of 'science' in every culture" (p. 15).

"Science is viewed as a socio-cultural system; as an integrated whole that is intimately interrelated with human activities; and as a process that can be presented from the non-Western high contextual/cultural perspectives in valid and internally consistent ways" (p. 206).

"Science is essentially a system of classifications and the recognition of patterns for the purpose of explanation and prediction" (p. 247).

Concepts: generic science (defined just above), Western science, and Aboriginal science. The last two are "ethnosciences" (p. 124).

First Nations Cultures versus Western Science Culture

"The mutalistic/wholistic oriented mindsets of Native American cultures, on the one hand, and the rationalistic/dualistic mindset of Western science which divides, analyzes and objectifies, on the other." (p. 189) [Glen -- 'mindset' = 'worldview']

Values (with implications for teaching)

Teaching science must include becoming conscious of First Nations values. (p. 176)

"The following outline of selected and idealized Native American core cultural values represents a basic perspective of some of the underlying contrasts between traditional native American and ono-native American values and associated behaviors and attributes. This is not meant to reflect the wide variations within the Native American population which is related to relative levels of cultural assimilation or the differences between native American cultures. However, it will provide a general frame of reference for the pre-instructional strategies and planning of a curriculum such as "Science from a Native American Perspective." (p. 177)

Personal Differences. Respect for the unique individual differences in people. "Non interferences in the affairs of another or verbalizing one's thoughts or opinion only when asked are common native American expressions of this value" (p. 178). Mutual respect is shown by "minding their own business."

Quietness. Interpersonal etiquette that may mask anger of uncomfortableness. Historically, it is related to survival strategies.

Patience. "All things unfold in their own time" (p. 178). "Patience revolves around respect for individuals, group consensus and 'the second thought'." Avoid "pressure on Indian students to make quick decisions or responses" in class.

Open Work Ethic. "Work revolves around a distinct purpose and work is done when it needs to be done. The non-materialistic orientation of many Indians is directly reflected by this value. Only what is directly needed is accumulated through work. Work is always tied to a specific job. ... School work must be shown to have a direct and immediate purpose." (p. 179)

Mutualism. It is "expressed through cooperation". Had survival value. "Being part of the group, 'solidarity,' group security, and consensus is highly valued." (p. 179) In class, balance cooperative activities with competitive activities.

Non-Verbal Orientation. Listening over talking. Talking must have an immediate purpose. Small talk is only for close friends. "Words have a primordial power so that when there is a reason for expressing words, it is generally done carefully. ... In social interaction, the emphasis is on the affective rather than verbal" (p. 180). In class, do not force a group discussion or an student to answer. Lecture and demonstrations can be comfortable. Immediate purposes for discussions, inquiry, role playing, or simulations, are needed.

Seeing & Listening. Essential to an oral tradition. "Storytelling, oratory and experiential and observational learning were all highly developed in Native American cultures. In class, "modified case study methods, storytelling and experiential activities can all be highly effective if presented from a native American perspective" (p. 180). Balance listening, observation, and speaking by students.

Time Orientation. "Things happen when they are ready to happen. Time is relatively flexible and generally not structured into compartments as it is in modern society. ... The solution is to allow for flexibility and openness in terms of time within practical limits" (p.181).

Orientation to Present. "This orientation stems from the very deeply embedded philosophical emphasis in Being rather than in Becoming. Present needs and desires will tend to take precedence over vague future rewards" (p. 181). Relevancy must be in terms of time and place for each student. [Glen -- It's rather ironic that the opposite orientation occurs on the grand scale of planet survival, inadvertently.]

Practicality. "Many Indians have less difficulty comprehending educational materials and approaches which are concrete or experiential rather than those that are abstract and theoretical. ... Learning and teaching should begin with numerous concrete examples and activities to be followed by discussion of the abstraction. (However, this does not mean that Indian cultures do not have abstract concepts or that Indians are incapable of dealing with them.)" (p. 182

Wholistic Orientation. Indian culture celebrates an integrated orientation to the whole (e.g. healing and social organization). "Presentation of educational material from a wholistic perspective becomes an essential and very natural teaching strategy for teaching Indian people.

Spirituality is "integrated into every aspect of the socio/cultural fabric of traditional Native American life. It is considered a natural component of everything. As a general educational tool, it presents a good advance organizer for concept presentation in that all aspects of Indian culture are touched by it. The discussion of the general aspects of spirituality and religion is an important part of the ethnoscience curriculum, although precautions must be taken to respect the integrity and sacred value of each specific Indian tribe's religious practices and their inherent privacy" (p. 182). Keep all discussions general and non-specific as possible.

Caution in "unfamiliar personal encounters ans situations. ... Results from a basic fear about how their thoughts and behavior will be accepted by others with whom they are unfamiliar or in a new situation with which they have no experience" (183). In classroom, try to alleviate such fears. "An open friendliness and sincerity are key factors in easing these tensions" (p. 183).

Classroom Discipline. "The cultivation of self-discipline is valued. ... Behavior is regulated through group and peer pressure. withdrawal of approval, shame, and reflecting unacceptable behavior back to the individual are the main forms of punishment in the Traditional Indian context." (p. 183). "Withdrawal of approval and a clear understanding of the consequences of the breech of the standards of behavior are a key consideration in this situation" (p. 184).

Personal Value Constellations of Individuals. (p. 175)

1. the Pueblo Indian that is -- "reflects a set of values which is firmly embedded in the traditional Pueblo mindset."

2. the Pueblo Indian in transition -- "reflects the value sets of both the traditional Pueblo mindset and that of American society."

3. the new-found Pueblo Indian -- "is usually an individual who has not been raised in a Pueblo context and is consciously in search of their traditional roots. The values set of this group is externally and acutely oriented to an 'idealized' standard of traditional Pueblo culture."

4. the Pueblo Indian who isn't -- "for a variety of environmental and personal reasons has consciously decided to adopt mainstream American cultural values."

Learning is Tied to the Job

Learning how to hunt concretely illustrates teaching ideas.

1. Learning the habits of the animal hunted. (mythology; listening and observation)

2. Learning how to track, read appropriate signs, and stalk the animal. (observation, intuition, reasoning)

3. Learning the appropriate respect and ritual which is to be extended to the animal hunted. (learning a "mindset")

4. Learning how to properly care for the carcass of the animal once it has been taken. (an ecological ethic, technology)

5. Learning how to use the various parts of the animal taken. (technology) (p. 185)

"Science from the perspective of tracking involves experiencing the world, seeing, then tracking, then representing some of nature's concentric rings [see mandala of the curriculum below] in a particular form" (p. 281). Tracking can be a metaphor for scientific investigations. "Science in process is basically following tracks in a particular field or level of natural reality" (p. 285).

"Native American cultural education evolves around the problem of learning how to do something. While, modern American education evolves around conceptual frames of reference which prepare students for future possible needs and tasks deemed important in a modern industrial and technological societal complex." (p 186)

Native American methods of teaching and learning (pp. 151 ff): experiential learning (learning by doing and seeing), storytelling (learning by active listening, imagination, and 'coding', p. 158), ritual/ceremony (learning through initiation, connecting to the spirit), dreaming (learning through the unconscious and imagery), the tutor (learning through apprenticeship, informal and formal), and artistic creation (learning through creative synthesis)" (p. 154).

Instructional Strategies for a Bicultural Approach to Science (pp. 189ff)

1. Introduce students to basic skill of Western science (observing, classifying, generalizing) by using familiar events. "Build upon students' innate interests and curiosity" (p. 189).

2. Then compare thought processes in the two different cultures (First Nations and Western science)

3. Introduce students to abstract concepts symbol systems (as they relate to explaining natural phenomena) in both cultures. Never privilege one system over the other.

4. "For children to begin to learn science as a process of communication, they must be exposed to an environment which is acquisition rich in reference to the 'language of science'." (p. 193) Exemplary methods include: field trips, integration of science in the context of other subjects (e.g. art, social studies), guest speakers, and hands-on activities.

5. Convey an image of science as both a discipline and "a cultural system of thought" (p. 193).

6. Teach Western science as one teaches a second language (a type of literacy).

7. Use a constructivist approach. "We acquire structures through understanding messages containing new structures rather than being taught them directly" (p. 194).

8. "Encourage and otherwise expect excellence from Native American students within the school environment" (p. 197). When students are socially constructed as outsiders to the social system in which Western science flourishes, the 'self-fulfilling prophesy' syndrome persuades them from taking up science and engineering related courses and careers. [Glen -- avoid deficit model]

9. Teachers need to discover who their students are culturally, socially, and individually. (p. 199) Don't construct them as stereotypes, discover them.

How does a teacher do this? -- "Careful observation of student compositions, informal discussion with students and parents, and involvement with cultural activities within the community are all helpful in developing these needed perspectives for bicultural education" (p. 200). Each student has his/her own learning style.

Home learning environments are generally "characterized by such factors as freedom of movement, learning though direct experience, hands on and activity oriented learning" (p. 201). This contrasts with typical science learning environments

Learning style tendencies: "a predominant non-verbal orientation, a tendency toward visual, spatial and kinesthetic modes of learning, a heavy reliance on visual perception and memory, a preference for movement and activity while learning, and a preference for process learning which moves from concrete examples to the abstraction" (p. 201)

Types of students (high school and college; pp 55-58): (1) rural traditional, (2) transitional (undergone a degree of assimilation/acculturation, they "gain best from both worlds" which should be in balance), and (3) urban assimilated.

Curriculum Design for "Science: a Native American perspective"

Cajete's curriculum model "can be used to complement the 'established' science curricula particularly, though not exclusively, in schools where Native American students are enrolled. By its nature, a wholistically oriented curriculum recognizes and provides for the integration of the intuitive and rational thought process. By recognizing cultural identity and creativity, the wholistic curriculum can form the basis for a more positive conception of self, culture, and science on the part of Native American learners" (p. 207).

Two ideas guided the design: (1) "culture is intimately involved in the nature and expression of the scientific thought process," and (2) "science is a creative process of thought and action and, as such, is highly interrelated with other cultural systems such as art" (p 209).

Curriculum Process:

"It is not the purpose of this model to supplant the teaching of basic science principles through more conventional science curricula but rather to facilitate their transfer through culturally meaningful communication" (p. 211). Purpose is to facilitate the bridging between Western science and Aboriginal science, through culturally meaningful communication. Overview:

1. Create a model of the scientific content by introducing students to how this content is communicated or used in an Aboriginal culture. The curriculum model conveys "the presentation of the basic principles of general [Western] science by first introducing students to the ways in which these principles are communicated, utilized, or otherwise exemplified in Native American culture" (p. 210).

2. Students are then presented with a comparison of these cultural examples with similar elements in Western science" (p. 210). The idea is "to illustrate that these principles are the result of the creative thought process and to establish this as a point of commonality between both cultural perspectives" (p. 211). Students should see Western science content as the result of creative thinking in both cultures.

3. Review and apply the content in a number of different contexts.

Model: (See Table 3)

a. Native American paradigms reflecting understandings of nature

b. exploration and discussion of these Native American paradigms

c. Western paradigms reflecting understanding of nature (scientific)

d. exploration of Western scientific paradigms

e. comparison of native American and Western paradigms concerning nature

f. presentation of Native American forms and principles

g. analysis of Native American ethnoscience forms and principles

h. Native American classification patterns

i. presentation of Western science forms and principles

j. analysis of Western science forms and principles

k. Western science classification patterns

l. review of Native American and Western science forms and principles

m. Native American symbolic orientations and forms of creative processing relating to ethnoscience

n. Western scientific symbolic orientations and forms of creative processing

o. understanding, integration and comparison of native American and Western approaches to science

"building bridges to understanding"

Product: a Native American students who is science literate, who understands and appreciates both Native American and Western scientific approaches.

Curriculum Components:

Model: (see Table 4)

2^nd level "The active development of:

'relationality' -- finding and establishing relationships to the content being presented,

'responsibilities' -- developing strategies to respond to what is being presented,

'meaning making' -- developing a psycho/affective synthesis of the content presented, and

'hologizing' -- actively making connections to other parts of the whole body of content or to other distinctly different content." (p. 224)

3^rd level "The process involves the wholistic interaction and integration of such dimensions as the cultural configuration, values, and identity of the learners. Also involved at this level is expression of the different kinds of symbolic systems involved with the content presented. Finally, at this level, the unique characteristics of the native American or Western cultural content being used intertwines with communicative and literacy dimensions of science." (pp. 224-225)

4^th level "The process involves the active exploration and comparison/contrast of native American cosmological and philosophical paradigms with those of Western culture, especially as these areas apply to science. Also involved at this level is a comparison/contrast of selected native American technologies with appropriate Western scientific technologies and principles." (p. 225)

5^th level "A dynamic resonance of four other whole processes with all of the other levels."

EAST -- the creating process which includes exploring, innovating, making, and transforming.

WEST -- the developmental learning process, which includes the activities forming, mastering, integrating, and re-synthesis.

NORTH -- the experiencing process and the interaction and integration of the senses, thinking, acting, exploring, and experimenting.

SOUTH -- the culturing process, which includes enculturation, communication, language, and cultural interface.

For students "rediscovering" their tribal identities and for bicultural students wanting to live within the context of both cultures (tribal and Western), "instruction in bicultural science ... constitutes a real enrichment of their attitudes toward science and in significant ways reaffirms cultural ties and identifications with their tribal groups ... [and] provides a way to bridge the sometimes great differences in 'mindset' concerning natural phenomena" (p. 171).

"Creativity as a learning process and the perspective of science as a cultural system of thought are two of the major foundations of this curriculum" (p 227). Other foundations include:

1. An understanding and application of the metaphoric thought process. (pp. 229-231)

2. An understanding and application of appropriate mythological perspectives. (pp. 232-236)

"Myths are able to communicate meaning at a number of levels simultaneously" (p 236). The function of myths (p. 234):

a. to kindle and represent a sense of awe

b. to represent how things came to be

c. to structure and represent symbolically coded cultural knowledge

d. to guide action through a myth's re-enactment and application of its precepts -- "living a myth"

"In every culture, science as a cultural system of thought is influenced and guided by the myth-making process. Indeed, science in modern society has itself become a major generator and molder of myth as modern science becomes a center of focus in modern life. The possibilities of using perspectives of myth to enhance the presentation of science concepts to Native American students are, therefore, unparalleled." (p. 236)

3. The extensive application of storytelling and experiential learning strategies. (pp. 237-241)

4. The development and application of "situational" learning contexts where there is a specific interface between science and culture -- "making science 'real' students". (pp. 242-246) "Identification of science with the cultural identity of the student is a basic intent of this curriculum approach" (p. 242). [Glen -- this smooths cultural border crossings into science for students]

"The motivation to learn anything can be said to be very dependent upon both one's personal and socio-cultural needs and characteristics. This curriculum attempts to integrate the presentation of science with these important identity needs" (p. 246). That is, present science in terms of students' cultural identities. [Glen -- i.e. according to Vikki Costa's 5 categories of students]

5. The facilitation of opportunities for student growth and development in their abilities to deal with and adapt to changing environmental influences. (pp. 147-148) "To facilitate (students') awareness of their own growth and development in understanding of their relationships to their culture and the natural environment" (p. 246).

6. Teaching for creativity in science by exposing students to creative problem solving techniques and facilitating their awareness of their own creative abilities and potential. (pp. 249-253)

7. An understanding and application of interdisciplinary perspectives concerning science, culture, and creativity. (p. 254-256)

Aboriginal Perspectives:

"In Native American life, science, art and religion are completely integrated into an intimately related whole" (p. 272).

Aboriginal mandalas ("mechanisms for focus and meditation and as such, are open to a whole spectrum of interpretation depending on where one's mind/heart happens to be in space and time", p. 271). "The mandala for this curriculum represents a kind of map of mindsets which involves areas that are of relevance to traditional native American contexts. Each of the circles [see the 7 points below] represents rich sources from which to originate discussion of science based on metaphoric representations of native American perceptions of the natural world." (p. 276)

Chapter 10 describes a mandala for "Science: a Native American perspective". It is also in Cajete's 1994 book, Look to the Mountain, pp. 197-203. The mandala has 7 points (in 3-dimensional space):

1. Centre: the domain of the creative thought process and wholistic thinking. Symbolized by "balance". (p. 273)

2. East: the domain of philosophy and the quest for enlightened understanding. It is the dwelling place of the minds and rational/intuitive thought. Symbolized by "wisdom". (p. 274)

3. West the domain of social psychology and the quest for self-knowledge. It is the dwelling place of the self and the group mind. Symbolized by "well being and sustenance". (p. 274)

4. South the domain of medicine, and the quest for health and wholeness. It is the dwelling place of plants and their life-giving processes. Symbolized by "health". (p. 274)

5. North the domain of the animals, mythology, and the quest for understanding of "animal within" and the archetypal unconscious. It is the dwelling place of animals and their animating power. Symbolized by "primal instinct, myth, and dream". (pp. 274-275)

6. Below the domain of geoscience and the quest for understanding the place and relationship of man to the bio-physical environment of earth. It is the dwelling place of the earth spirit and the womb of life. Symbolized by "the dynamic interplay of the archetypal elements ... such as weather, volcanic activity, erosion, ...".

7. Above the domain of the art and science of ancient and modern astronomy. It is the dwelling place of the all-encompassing and the universal. Symbolized by "order of the cosmos and man's quest for an understanding of the Universe and the Universal". (p. 275)

"Myth mirrors and analogizes nature" (p. 285) [Glen -- but so do scientific concepts]

"The view of nature as a spiritual reality directly affected Native American cultural manifestations of the science process and associated technologies. In general, Native American concepts of nature were not meant as explicit explanations of natural processes as are concepts in Western science. Rather, concepts such as animal or plant spirits, benevolent or malevolent forces of nature and the mythological or ritualistic symbolic representations of nature, were symbolic representations of essences and relationships which Native American groups have come to intuitively understand through generations of experiences within a given natural environment." (p. 137) It is "possible for humans, other living and natural forces to communicate with and affect each other through their interdependencies and reciprocal relationships" (p. 137). = "resonant relationships"

Assumptions: (pp. 303-305)

"Science: a Native American Perspective presents a bridge which allows for an integration of conventional science curricula with a cultural and affective base that is relevant to Native American students. This is a first step in reversing the perceived alienation of native American students toward science."

"Science: a Native American perspective is based on the assumptions that:

1. Science education must incorporate both the rational and intuitive thought process in its presentation.

2. Science is simultaneously a cultural system of thought, a creative process of problem solving, and a system of communication.

3. Science and art parallel one another as ways of relating to the natural world. [See Bronowski's Ascent of Man, for a comparison between art and science.] Science from this perspective is an aesthetic experience which involves a wide range of social relationships.

4. Nature has within it a spirit that is part of each of us. We cannot truly encounter it without changing ourselves. ?We are not separate from the objects of our activity. We affect and are affected by all that we do in relationship to the natural world. This is an essential aspect which infuses meaning into the study of science as a tool for understanding natural processes.

5. Objectivity is a relative term. Nothing that human beings do can be considered completely objective in reference to the general meaning of the term. Objectivity in the scientific method is the goal of modern scientific endeavors. Yet that objectivity is expressed only within the parameters of the current paradigm of Western science which itself is changing as Western society is changing. This reality of relative objectivity is important to convey to students through science curricula.

6. Science is a form of communication. It follows from this assumption that science involves a kind of "literacy." This literacy, in turn, involves the development of basic skills in applying rational and intuitive thought as tools for understanding and solving problems in reference to nature. Such a literacy also entails a basic understanding of key concepts and ways of viewing natural processes from the perspective of a particular cultural system of thought. It follows from this assumption that science must be approached as a type of dynamic literacy which must be internalized.

7. Meaning Making: How an encounter with natural phenomena affects students, and the meaning which it has for them, is a basic consideration which encompasses the personal, cultural, and creative dimensions of the way students perceive science. [Glen -- constructivism and border crossing.] Meaning is the dey to relevance. Therefore, if science is to have meaning for students, that meaning must be inherent in both the content and presentation of science."